Australia

Key Findings

Finding a suitable balance between work and life is a challenge for all workers, especially working parents. Some couples would like to have (more) children, but do not see how they could afford to stop working. Other parents are happy with the number of children in their family, but would like to work more. This is a challenge to governments because if parents cannot achieve their desired work/life balance, not only is their welfare lowered but so is development in the country.

In Australia, 71% of mothers are employed after their children begin school; this figure is higher than the OECD average of 66% and suggests that mothers are able to successfully balance family and career.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in Australia devote 63% of their day, or 15.1 hours, to personal care (eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) – close to the OECD average.

Better Policies for Better Lives

Helping single parents find paid work

Australia performs well on a number of important outcomes of work-life balance: fertility (1.9 children per women) is above the OECD average (1.7), the female employment rate (66.2%) has been rising steadily since the 1960s and is now well above OECD average (59.6%), and the gender wage gap (12%) is below average (16%). Unlike many other OECD countries, mothers often return to full-time work once their children reach schooling age.

However, joblessness among sole parent families is a significant problem. At just over 50% in 2009 the sole-parent employment rate is one of the lowest in the OECD, which contributes to an above average poverty rate for sole-parent families. This issue is of particular concern as around one in five children live in such households, and projections show that the number is likely to increase by 20% over the next 25 years. Australian policy should therefore continue to support work, training or job search requirements for recipients of sole-parent benefits.

Australia does well for most of its children as measured by outcomes within the three key dimensions of material well-being, education and health. The child poverty rate has fallen over the last 10 years and is now below the OECD average, PISA reading scores are above the OECD average, older children are less likely to be out of education or employment, and the incidence of infant deaths has also seen a large decline.

Despite above average public expenditure on families, Australia spends less on childcare services than most OECD countries: 0.4% of GDP compared with the OECD average of 0.6%. This has contributed to low childcare enrolment rates for young children, with only 40% of children aged less than six years enrolled in formal childcare. Australia should consider extending its childcare support programmes to provide more help to working parents.

Indicators

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Austria

Key Findings

In Austria, 71% of mothers are employed after their children begin school; this figure is higher than the OECD average of 66% and suggests that mothers are able to successfully balance family and career.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in Austria devote 64% of their day, or 15.2 hours, to personal care (eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) – close to the OECD average.

Indicators

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Belgium

Key Findings

In Belgium, 63% of mothers are employed after their children begin school; this figure is slightly lower than the OECD average of 66% but still suggests that mothers are able to successfully balance family and career.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in Belgium devote 69% of their day, or 16.6 hours, to personal care (eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) – higher than the OECD average.

Indicators

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Canada

Key Findings

Many parents manage to reconcile their work and care commitments adequately, although it remains a challenge for others. The female employment rate in Canada is high at 76% compared to the OECD average of 64%, and in two out of three two-parent families both parents work. 71% of mothers are employed after their children begin school; this figure is higher than the OECD average of 66% and suggests that mothers in Canada are able to successfully balance family and career.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in Canada devote 62% of their day, or 15 hours, to personal care (eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) – close to the OECD average.

Better Policies for Better Lives

Childcare support could help vulnerable families

Canada performs well in a number of key family indicators: fertility rates (1.7 children per women), gender pay gaps (20% at median earnings) and child poverty (at almost 15%) are all close to the OECD average. Female employment is higher than most OECD countries and children’s educational achievement as measured by PISA reading literacy values is amongst the highest in the OECD. However, childcare enrolment of children under age six, at 40%, lags behind OECD standards.

Canada is a federal country and each province has different policies in this area. Of the Provinces, Québec arguably has the most comprehensive mix of family-friendly policies, including childcare and out-of-school childcare support, in-work benefits for parents, and paternity leave. However, affordability and quality in childcare remains an issue across Canada.

Particularly vulnerable are sole parents, whose childcare costs are amongst the highest in the OECD. Providing greater investment in childcare would both reduce costs of childcare to parents and increase the quality of service, with positive effects on child development.

Indicators

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Chile

Key Findings

Many parents manage to reconcile their work and care commitments adequately, although it remains a challenge for others. After their children begin school, an estimated 51% of mothers are employed; this figure is lower than the OECD average of 66% and suggests that mothers in Chile encounter difficulties when balancing family and career.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in Chile devote an estimated 62% of their day, or 15 hours, to personal care (eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) – close to the OECD average.

Data for employment rate of women with children and time devoted to leisure and personal care in Chile rely on OECD estimates. These figures will be updated as official information becomes available.

Indicators

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Czech Republic

Key Findings

In the Czech Republic, 71% of mothers are employed after their children begin school; this figure is higher than the OECD average of 66% and suggests that mothers are able to successfully balance family and career.

Another important aspect of work-life balance is the amount of time a person spends at work. Evidence suggests that long work hours may impair personal health, jeopardize safety and increase stress. People in the Czech Republic work 1942 hours a year, higher than the OECD average of 1739 hours per year and one of the highest rates in the OECD.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in the Czech Republic devote an estimated 65% of their day, or 15.5 hours, to personal care (eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) – close to the OECD average.

Data for time devoted to leisure and personal care in the Czech Republic rely on OECD estimates. These figures will be updated as official information becomes available.

Indicators

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Denmark

Key Findings

In Denmark, 78% of mothers are employed after their children begin school; this figure is higher than the OECD average of 66% and suggests that mothers are able to successfully balance family and career.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in Denmark devote 68% of their day, or 16.3 hours, to personal care (eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) – higher than the OECD average.

Indicators

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Estonia

Key Findings

In Estonia, 74% of mothers are employed after their children begin school; this figure is higher than the OECD average of 66% and suggests that mothers are able to successfully balance family and career.

Another important aspect of work-life balance is the amount of time a person spends at work. Evidence suggests that long work hours may impair personal health, jeopardize safety and increase stress. People in Estonia work 1969 hours a year, one of the highest rates in the OECD and higher than the average of 1739 hours.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in Estonia devote 62% of their day, or 14.9 hours, to personal care (eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) – close to the OECD average.

Indicators

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Finland

Key Findings

In many respects Finland does well in reconciling work and family life. The female employment rate in Finland, at 66%, is well above the OECD average of 55%, and more than 9 out of 10 Finnish woman and mothers who have jobs in employment work full-time. 76% of mothers are employed after their children begin school; this figure is higher than the OECD average of 66% and suggests that mothers in Finland are able to successfully balance family and career.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in Finland devote 67% of their day, or 16 hours, to personal care(eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) – higher than the OECD average.

Better Policies for Better Lives

The Finnish model of work and family reconciliation stands out in international comparison because of the manner in which it provides choice to parents with young children. Finnish policy reduces barriers to employment by ensuring all families with young children have access to a subsidised childcare place.

Indicators

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France

Key Findings

In France, 66% of mothers are employed after their children begin school; this figure is close to the OECD average of 66% and suggests that mothers are able to successfully balance family and career.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in France devote 67% of their day, or 16.1 hours, to personal care (eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) – higher than the OECD average.

Better Policies for Better Lives

Greater gender equality can be achieved in France

France performs well in a number of important dimensions of work-life balance: fertility is above the OECD average; the employment rate of women aged 25 to 54 is above the OECD average, and 80% of them work full-time; and despite a recent slight increase, child poverty concerns 8% of children aged from 0 to 17 and is well below the OECD average (12.75%). These positive outcomes go hand-in-hand with high investment in family policies across the different stages of childhood.

Despite these positive outcomes, access to the labour market of mothers of young or large families could be improved but would likely require a more equal share of caring activities between parents. A greater involvement of fathers in care activities after childbirth is likely to facilitate the return to work of mothers. However, fathers are currently not encouraged to take parental leave beyond the 10 days of paid paternity leave. French tax reliefs and benefits do help households to bear the cost of large families. However, these families can still be close to or fall below the poverty threshold when one parent does not work or is on parental leave. In France, parents of two or more children can leave employment or reduce working time after childbirth and receive a flat-rate childcare benefit for up to three years. Women with low earnings, and working hours that make it difficult to cope with childcare commitments, are more likely to completely stop working for three years and receive full-benefit.

Indicators

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Germany

Key Findings

In Germany, 66% of mothers are employed after their children begin school; this figure is close to the OECD average and suggests that mothers are able to successfully balance family and career.

Another important aspect of work-life balance is the amount of time a person spends at work. Evidence suggests that long work hours may impair personal health, jeopardize safety and increase stress. People in Germany work 1390 hours a year, one of the lowest rates in the OECD and much lower than the average of 1739 hours.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in Germany devote 67% of their day, or 16.1 hours, to personal care (eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) – higher than the OECD average.

Better Policies for Better Lives

Addressing gender inequalities can help families grow

In 2009, only three countries in the OECD had fewer babies per woman than Germany. With a fertility rate of 1.36, compared to 1.74 on average in the OECD, Germany's fertility rate has been below 1.5 children per woman since 1983.

In Germany, women often postpone having children, and they are 30 years old on average when they have their first child (a record high they share with women in the United Kingdom). Postponement increases the likelihood of not having children at all and childlessness in Germany is high: over 40% of German women aged 25 to 49 live in childless households (compared with an OECD average of 34%). Otherwise families are small: around half (52%) of all German families with children are one-child families compared with 44% on average across the OECD.

Women with high levels of educational attainment in Germany are most likely to postpone childbirth. The career costs for German women having children can be substantial: German mothers with adult children have, on average, earned less than half of the total working-life earnings of otherwise similar female employees.

At 25% of median earnings, gender pay gaps are well above the OECD average (16%). Mothers spend twice as much time on care than men (over 20% against less than 10%). For German policy to reconcile work and family life for both parents a number of serious barriers to female labour market participation need to be addressed. Germany is the only OECD country where the tax/benefit system does not favour second earners in families with children.

Germany has taken steps to increase fathers' participation in child raising which will help more women engage with the labour market. The OECD commends Germany for the recent parental leave reform which is among the most generous of OECD systems with leave entitlements for the exclusive use by fathers.

Indicators

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Greece

Key Findings

In Greece, 52% of mothers are employed after their children begin school; this figure is lower than the OECD average of 66% and suggests that mothers encounter difficulties when balancing family and career.

Another important aspect of work-life balance is the amount of time a person spends at work. Evidence suggests that long work hours may impair personal health, jeopardize safety and increase stress. People in Greece work 2119 hours a year, one of the highest rates in the OECD and much higher than the OECD average of 1739 hours.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in Greece devote an estimated 66% of their day, or 15.9 hours, to personal care (eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) – higher than the OECD average.

Data for time devoted to leisure and personal care in Greece rely on OECD estimates. These figures will be updated as official information becomes available.

Indicators

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Hungary

Key Findings

In Hungary, 59% of mothers are employed after their children begin school; this figure is lower than the OECD average of 66% and suggests that mothers encounter difficulties when balancing family and career.

Another important aspect of work-life balance is the amount of time a person spends at work. Evidence suggests that long work hours may impair personal health, jeopardize safety and increase stress. People in Hungary work 1989 hours a year, one of the highest rates in the OECD and higher than the average of 1739 hours.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in Hungary devote 64% of their day, or 15.4 hours, to personal care (eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) – close to the OECD average.

Better Policies for Better Lives

More support to families can boost fertility in Hungary

At 1.33 children per woman, the total fertility rate in Hungary is the 3rd lowest across the OECD (the average is 1.74). The decline in fertility started in the 1980s, and accelerated in the early 1990s. Since 2000, fertility rates stabilised in Hungary, while about half of the other OECD countries experienced an increase. Low fertility goes hand in hand with low employment among women. In 2010, the female employment rate was just below 50% (10 percentage points below the OECD average), and at 46% in 2007, the maternal employment rate was the lowest of the European OECD countries.

Low fertility and female employment rates are largely explained by insufficient support for parents to reconcile work and care commitments. Hungary is among the top OECD spenders on families with 3.3% of GDP allocated to family benefits in 2007. However, only 1/3 of these resources are spent on helping with childcare costs, while this share is above 43% in countries with higher fertility rates.

The prolonged duration of parental leave and the limited provision of childcare supports establish barriers to employment for many mothers. Parental leave can last up to 3 years (compared with 1.5 years on average across the OECD) and be combined with a cash-for-care payment; a parent of three or more children can even stay at home and receive this benefit until the youngest child is eight years old. Moreover, less than 9% of children under age 3 are enrolled in formal childcare services.

Hungary has recently introduced a tax relief for households with large number of children, which might have a positive influence on birth rates. However, the evidence from other countries is that a wider provision of formal childcare services is a more effective tool for helping parents with work and family commitments and thus raise birth rates.

Indicators

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Iceland

Key Findings

In Iceland, 87% of mothers are employed after their children begin school; this figure is higher than the OECD average of 66% and the highest in the OECD, suggesting that mothers are able to successfully balance family and career.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in Iceland devote an estimated 62% of their day, or 14.9 hours, to personal care (eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) – close to the OECD average.

Data for employees working very long hours and time devoted to leisure and personal care in Iceland rely on OECD estimates. These figures will be updated as official information becomes available.

Indicators

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Ireland

Key Findings

In Ireland, 55% of mothers are employed after their children begin school; this figure is lower than the OECD average of 66% and suggests that mothers encounter difficulties when balancing family and career.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in Ireland devote 64% of their day, or 15.2 hours, to personal care(eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) – close to the OECD average.

Indicators

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Israel

Key Findings

In Israel, an estimated 55% of mothers are employed after their children begin school; this figure is lower than the OECD average of 66% and suggests that mothers encounter difficulties when balancing family and career.

Another important aspect of work-life balance is the amount of time a person spends at work. Evidence suggests that long work hours may impair personal health, jeopardize safety and increase stress. The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in Israel devote an estimated 63% of their day, or 15.2 hours, to personal care (eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) – close to the OECD average.

Data for employment rate of women with children and time devoted to leisure and personal care in Israel rely on OECD estimates. These figures will be updated as official information becomes available.

Indicators

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Italy

Key Findings

In Italy, 49% of mothers are employed after their children begin school; this figure is lower than the OECD average of 66% and suggests that mothers encounter difficulties when balancing family and career.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in Italy devote 65% of their day, or 15.7 hours, to personal care (eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) – close to the OECD average.

Better Policies for Better Lives

Support to combine work and childrearing in Italy

Italy falls behind OECD averages on three key family indicators: female employment rates, fertility rates and child poverty. Compared with many other OECD countries, women in Italy find it difficult to combine motherhood with paid employment. In fact, women often have to choose between work and having children; the result is few children and low female employment rates: 48% compared with an OECD average of 59%.

Fertility rates have fallen sharply during the 1970s, and have stabilised around 1.4 children per women since the mid-1980s. Looking to pursue a career first, younger generations often postpone childbirth and as a result, increase the likelihood of not having children at all. In Italy about 24% of women born in 1965 have remained childless, compared to only 10% for French women of the same age. Italy spends around 1.4% of GDP for families with children, which is below the 2.2% invested in families on average across the OECD. Working parents can take up to 11 months of parental leave, including 5 months of maternity leave usually at full pay, but payment rates for the rest of the parental leave period are low. While 98% of children aged three to five years old attend school (Scuola dell'Infanza), only about 29% of all children under age 3 participate in formal childcare.

Working time flexibility plays a limited role in helping parents to reconcile their work and care commitments. However, less than 50% of companies with 10 or more employees provide flexi-time options to their employees, and 60% of employees have no control over their working times. When faced with limited access to out-of-school care services, holding a full-time job is difficult for parents. Childcare policies and workplace practices that reduce barriers to employment for mothers therefore can be strengthened to achieve better work and family outcomes.

Indicators

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Japan

Key Findings

In Japan, 66% of mothers are employed after their children begin school; this figure is close to the OECD average and suggests that mothers are able to successfully balance family and career.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in Japan devote 60% of their day, or 14.3 hours, to personal care (eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) – lower than the OECD average.

Data for employees working very long hours in Japan rely on OECD estimates. These figures will be updated as official information becomes available.

Better Policies for Better Lives

Japan has fewer babies and lower female employment

Parents in Japan find it difficult to combine work and family commitments. Workplace practices, private costs (housing and juku), and social norms put pressure on young people. Hence, young Japanese postpone marriage, delay parenthood and often have fewer children than intended.

In 2009, only 4 countries in the OECD had fewer babies per woman than Japan. With a fertility rate of 1.37, compared to 1.74 on average in the OECD, Japan was among the “lowest-low” fertility countries. There has been a small rebound since 2005, but nevertheless the population has started to decline.

Japanese social policy has introduced several measures to reduce barriers to both parenting and employment. However, despite these efforts, policies such as childcare can be further developed. Increasing childcare provision and reducing private costs of out-of-school services are both crucial for parental employment. Japanese public spending on childcare and preschool services is the fourth lowest among OECD countries. Childcare constraints persist and enrolment rates for children under-3 (at 28%), although increasing, are still below the OECD average (31%).

Japanese workplace practices make it difficult for parents to combine work and family life, not least because of the long working hours. After the high cost of education, many educated Japanese women first want to establish regular employment before having children. Furthermore, once Japanese women leave the labour force to care for children, they often end up in non-regular employment, which is often low paid, part-time, and temporary. Parents who wish to get back to work need to have better opportunities to re-enter regular employment, otherwise, those who can afford to stay at home do so rather than return to a low-quality job. The result is fewer babies and lower female employment levels than the OECD average, at a time when Japan needs more working women to replace the aging working age population.

Indicators

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Korea

Key Findings

In Korea, an estimated 60% of mothers are employed after their children begin school; this figure is close to the OECD average of 66% and suggests that mothers are able to successfully balance family and career.

Another important aspect of work-life balance is the amount of time a person spends at work. Evidence suggests that long work hours may impair personal health, jeopardize safety and increase stress. People in Korea work 2256 hours a year, the highest rate in the OECD and much higher than the OECD average of 1739 hours.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in Korea devote 64% of their day, or 15.5 hours, to personal care (eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) – close to the OECD average.

Data for employees working very long hours and employment rate of women with children in Korea rely on OECD estimates. These figures will be updated as official information becomes available.

Better Policies for Better Lives

Too few babies and too little female employment

At 1.15 children per woman, Korea’s total fertility rate in 2009 was the lowest in the OECD. The decline in the fertility rate is mainly explained by married women having fewer children – families with three or more children have become rare in Korea - and a rise in the number of single women. Simply put, Korean women who are more educated, have jobs, and live in cities are likely to put off marriage.

In addition to the low fertility rate, the female employment rate was also low at 52.2% in 2009, well below the OECD average of 59.6%. Korea has the dual challenge of promoting female labour market participation and increasing fertility rates. Korea's workplace practices (long working hours, socializing after work, little leave) make it difficult for parents to combine work and family life. After high private investments in education, many young Koreans first want to establish themselves in the regular employment before having children. However, once Korean women who have left the labour force to care for children, wish to return to work, they often end up in non-regular employment which is often low paid, part-time, and temporary. So if they can afford it, mothers will stay at home rather than return to a low-quality job. The result is too few babies and too little female employment, at a time when Korea needs more women in employment as its working age population is aging.

With female educational attainment levels now surpassing those of men, and with projected declines in the labour force, Korea's economy needs to make a more efficient use of its investment in human capital to keep its economic engine going. However, with less than 1% of GDP allocated to family benefits, Korea is the OECD country with the lowest public expenditure on family benefits. Korea should further develop its paid childcare system to help working parents with the cost of young children. Additionally, Korea's fathers should do more work at home to facilitate more women to be in work. In sum, there should be a greater role for flexible working-time arrangements, part-time employment opportunities, and performance-related pay to help Koreans better reconcile work and family life.

Indicators

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Luxembourg

Key Findings

In Luxembourg, 57% of mothers are employed after their children begin school; this figure is lower than the OECD average of 66% and suggests that mothers encounter difficulties when balancing family and career.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in Luxembourg devote an estimated 65% of their day, or 15.6 hours, to personal care(eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) – close to the OECD average.

Data for time devoted to leisure and personal care in Luxembourg rely on OECD estimates. These figures will be updated as official information becomes available.

Indicators

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Mexico

Key Findings

In Mexico, an estimated 57% of mothers are employed after their children begin school; this figure is close to the OECD average of 66% and suggests that mothers are encounter difficulties when balancing family and career.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in Mexico devote 57% of their day, or 13.6 hours, to personal care (eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) – lower than the OECD average.

Data for employment rate of women with children in Mexico rely on OECD estimates. These figures will be updated as official information becomes available.

Better Policies for Better Lives

More public support to families with children is needed

Mexico could strengthen its policies to enhance the well-being of families and children. Public support in family benefits and services are key for mobilising female employment, reducing poverty risks, promoting child development and improving gender equity.

Apart from Israel, Mexico has the highest child poverty rate in the OECD. More than 1 in 4 Mexican children lived in poor households in 2008 (25.8%); well above the OCED average of 1 in 8 (12.7%) children. In the early 2000s, child poverty rates fell noticeably in Mexico, in part due to an expansion of social programmes such as Oportunidades.

Child-related leave entitlements are limited. Maternity leave, although paid at 100% of last earnings, lasts just 12 weeks and only covers women in formal employment. No other form of parental leave, including for fathers, is available. Efforts to increase childcare (Programa de Estancias Infantiles para Madres Trabajadoras) and pre-school enrolment rates (by implementing compulsory pre-school education) have translated into higher participation rates. But more can be done, childcare enrolment rates among under-3’s remain considerably low (6% compared with an OECD average of 31%), and access to high quality and affordable care is central for facilitating parental employment.

Gender gaps in paid and unpaid work in Mexico are among the largest in the OECD area. Female employment rates, though modestly increasing, are the lowest in the OECD after Turkey (43% of Mexican women are in paid work compared to an OECD average of 60%). At home, Mexican women spend 4 hours per day more on unpaid work than men. Gender roles constitute a barrier to women’s and Mexico's economic opportunities.

Indicators

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Netherlands

Key Findings

In the Netherlands, 75% of mothers are employed after their children begin school; this figure is higher than the OECD average of 66% and suggests that mothers are able to successfully balance family and career.

Another important aspect of work-life balance is the amount of time a person spends at work. Evidence suggests that long work hours may impair personal health, jeopardize safety and increase stress. People in the Netherlands work 1378 hours a year, the lowest rate in the OECD and much lower than the OECD average of 1739 hours.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in the Netherlands devote 70% of their day, or 16.1 hours, to personal care (eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) – higher than the OECD average.

Better Policies for Better Lives

Dutch families are doing well as mothers take on dual roles

In the Netherlands, family and children policy outcomes are generally strong. Employment rates, parental education rates, and fertility rates are higher than OECD averages. In terms of children and youth, the Dutch have very low rates of youth unemployment, high reading literacy levels, below average levels of child income poverty, and high levels of life satisfaction in childhood (over 93% of 11-15 year old children report above average life satisfaction).

Many Dutch families share work responsibilities – the female employment rate is well above the OECD average (70.6% compared to 60.4% in the OECD on average), as is the mothers’ employment rate – but more often than not women work part-time. In the home, however, Dutch women spend almost 2 hours more per day working than men.

In the past two decades, the rise in female employment in the Netherlands has been rapid: in the early 80’s the rate was amongst the lowest in the OECD at around 35%, in 2009 it had doubled to over 70%. However, much of the increase in female employment has been on a part-time basis: over 55% of employed women work part-time. Part-time work is particularly common among employed mothers. This can add to the job satisfaction of these workers and free-up time for childcare, but often has negative consequences on career progression and underutilises women’s education and skills: young Dutch women are more educated than the OECD average, and more educated than Dutch men. In the Netherlands, a working mother with two grown up children has, on average, earned less than half of the total working-life earnings of otherwise similar female employees.

Indicators

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New Zealand

Key Findings

In New Zealand, 75% of mothers are employed after their children begin school; this figure is higher than the OECD average of 66% and suggests that mothers are able to successfully balance family and career.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in New Zealand devote 63% of their day, or 15.1 hours, to personal care (eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) – close to the OECD average.

Better Policies for Better Lives

High fertility and female employment rates, but challenges for single parents

New Zealand has experienced a steady growth in the female employment rate, which currently stands at 67%, well above the OECD average of 57%. Rising female employment has been coupled with rising wages for women too; the gender-wage gap, at 8%, is currently the 3rd lowest in the OECD, and half the OECD average. The total fertility rate has also increased over the last decade and is now well above the OECD average of 1.74 children per woman. High fertility and female employment rates in New Zealand, suggest overall compatibility between work and family life. However, Maori and Pacific ethnic groups combine high fertility rates with much lower female employment rates.

Although the overall spending per child fell between 2003 and 2007, there has been a welcome increase in early-childhood spending and childcare provision. The increase in spending on children aged 0-5 years as a share of spending on all children was one of the largest in the OECD.

Overall, child outcomes in New Zealand are mixed: the child poverty rate, at 12.2%, is around the 12.7% OECD average, infant deaths have fallen while proportion of low-weight births has also decreased. PISA reading scores are the fourth highest in the OECD. But the proportion of older children not in education or employment, at 9.3 is higher than the OECD average of 8.0%.

A good package of policies, including flexible workplace practices and affordable early childhood care and education services, helps New Zealand families to reconcile work and family and female life. Part-time work is a common working practice used by New Zealand mothers who reduce their working hours when their child is young but return to full-time work when the child starts school.

Indicators

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Norway

Key Findings

In Norway, an estimated 79% of mothers are employed after their children begin school; this figure is higher than the OECD average of 66% and suggests that mothers are able to successfully balance family and career.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in Norway devote 67% of their day, or 16.1 hours, to personal care (eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) – higher than the OECD average.

Data for employment rate of women with children in Norway rely on OECD estimates. These figures will be updated as official information becomes available.

Indicators

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Poland

Key Findings

In Poland, 60% of mothers are employed after their children begin school; this figure is lower than the OECD average of 66% and suggests that mothers encounter difficulties when balancing family and career.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in Poland devote 64% of their day, or 15.4 hours, to personal care (eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) – close to the OECD average.

Indicators

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Portugal

Key Findings

In Portugal, 67% of mothers are employed after their children begin school; this figure is slightly higher than the OECD average of 66% and suggests that mothers are able to successfully balance family and career.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in Portugal devote an estimated 66% of their day, or 15.8 hours, to personal care (eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) – close to the OECD average.

Data for time devoted to leisure and personal care in Portugal rely on OECD estimates. These figures will be updated as official information becomes available.

Better Policies for Better Lives

Portuguese families need further childcare support

For over a generation of families, fertility rates in Portugal have been falling. Today, only one other OECD country has a lower fertility rate (Korea). Sustainable fertility is important to ensure aging populations don’t threaten Portugal’s welfare systems and future productivity.

In reality, the Portuguese problem is not that families have no children, but rather families not having more than one child. Childlessness is low in Portugal, less than one in ten women aged 49+ have no children, but around half of all Portuguese families are one-child families. To improve fertility rates, Portuguese families need more support when caring for young children.

Recent parental leave reform has helped both mothers and fathers to spend more time with their newborns, as well as promoting gender equity through financial incentives to share parental leave. Pre-school childcare enrolment in Portugal has tripled in the last decade, it now stands at around 65% (OECD average is 58.2%).

Portugal should try to invest more of their public family budget towards early support for children, even in times when budget pressures are at their highest. Investment on child services is essential to enable families to flourish, for future welfare state sustainability and for economic growth. Portugal is already spending less than the OECD average at each stage of childhood. Reported spending on children in their early years is less than half of the OECD average (EUR 11 500 per child compared to EUR 24 900) and mid- and late- childhood spending lag behind OECD levels by around one-third and one-quarter respectively.

Indicators

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Slovak Republic

Key Findings

In the Slovak Republic, 65% of mothers are employed after their children begin school; this figure is close to the OECD average of 66% and suggests that mothers are able to successfully balance family and career.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in the Slovak Republic devote an estimated 64% of their day, or 15.3 hours, to personal care (eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) – close to the OECD average.

Data fortime devoted to leisure and personal care in the Slovak Republic rely on OECD estimates. These figures will be updated as official information becomes available.

Indicators

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Slovenia

Key Findings

In Slovenia, 74% of mothers are employed after their children begin school; this figure is higher than the OECD average of 66% and suggests that mothers are able to successfully balance family and career.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in Slovenia devote 64% of their day, or 15.3 hours, to personal care (eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) – close to the OECD average.

Indicators

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Spain

Key Findings

In Spain, 57% of mothers are employed after their children begin school; this figure is lower than the OECD average of 66% and suggests that mothers encounter difficulties when balancing family and career.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in Spain devote 66% of their day, or 15.7 hours, to personal care (eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) – close to the OECD average.

Better Policies for Better Lives

Spain should strengthen its policies to combine work and family life

Families in Spain find it difficult to combine work and family life, both female employment rates and fertility rates are low in international comparison. At only 1.4 children per woman, fertility rates in Spain have been amongst the lowest in the OECD for the past two decades. Increasingly, women and men first want to establish themselves in the labour market before having children. This has led to a postponement of childbirth and the average age of first childbirth for mothers is now close to 30. Low fertility rates are also related to a fall in the number of large families and a significant proportion of women remaining childless.

Female employment in Spain has risen markedly over the past 15 years, from 32.5% in 1995 to 53.5% in 2009. However, despite this important increase, female employment in Spain is still below the OECD average (59.6%); 75% of mothers go back to work only 8 years after childbirth. Governmental efforts in extending coverage and providing support to families to reduce the cost of childcare have led to an important increase in childcare participation. In 2008, 66.9% of children under 6 years old were enrolled in childcare services (the OECD average is 58.2%). However, out-of-school-hours care is limited and many working parents rely on informal providers: about a quarter of grandparents in Spain take care of their grandchildren on a daily basis.

Indicators

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Sweden

Key Findings

In Sweden, 76% of mothers are employed after their children begin school; this figure is higher than the OECD average of 66% and suggests that mothers are able to successfully balance family and career.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in Sweden devote 65% of their day, or 15.5 hours, to personal care (eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) – close to the OECD average.

Indicators

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Switzerland

Key Findings

In Switzerland, 79% of mothers are employed after their children begin school; this figure is higher than the OECD average of 66% and suggests that mothers are able to successfully balance family and career.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in Switzerland devote an estimated 66% of their day, or 15.7 hours, to personal care (eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) – close to the OECD average.

Data for time devoted to leisure and personal care in Switzerland rely on OECD estimates. These figures will be updated as official information becomes available.

Indicators

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Turkey

Key Findings

In Turkey, 24% of mothers are employed after their children begin school; this figure is much lower than the OECD average of 66% and the lowest in the OECD, suggesting that mothers encounter difficulties when balancing family and career.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in Turkey devote 64% of their day, or 15.3 hours, to personal care (eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) – close to the OECD average.

Indicators

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United Kingdom

Key Findings

In the United Kingdom, 67% of mothers are employed after their children begin school; this figure is close to the OECD average of 66% and suggests that mothers are able to successfully balance family and career.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in the United Kingdom devote 65% of their day, or 15.6 hours, to personal care (eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) – close to the OECD average.

Better Policies for Better Lives

Early investment is needed to meet UK poverty targets

Between 2003 and 2007 the UK strengthened its position as one of the biggest investors in families in the OECD. Early childhood spending rose substantially, driven by new cash supports for children around birth and increased investment on childcare services. In 2007 the UK spent more on children than most OECD countries, at just over 138 000 pounds sterling per child from birth up to the age of 18, compared to an OECD average of just under 95 000 pounds. Before the financial crisis, and during a period of increased investment (1995 to 2005), child poverty in the UK fell more than in any other OECD country (in 2005 it was 10.5%, down from 17.4% in 1995, compared to an OECD average of 12.7%); in the same period the growth in average family income was third highest in the OECD.

Today, spending cuts, such as cutting benefits for pregnancy and childbirth, and a freeze on child cash benefits, will affect many families. Progress in child poverty reduction in the UK has stalled, and is now predicted to increase; social protection spending on families therefore needs to be protected. Providing services such as affordable and good quality local day-care centres, with flexible opening hours, is key to helping families with children on low-incomes into work.

To this end, the plan outlined in the UK Child Poverty Strategy to extend the 15 hours of free early education services to disadvantaged children as young as two years old is a positive step for well-being of these children and the job prospects of their parents. Nonetheless childcare costs can remain a barrier to work for parents higher up the income scale, and there is room in UK policy for an effective childcare supplement for working parents.

Indicators

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United States

Key Findings

In the United States, 73% of mothers are employed after their children begin school; this figure is higher than the OECD average of 66% and suggests that mothers are able to successfully balance family and career.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as time with others or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people’s overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. People in the United States devote 63% of their day, or 15.1 hours, to personal care (eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socializing with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) – close to the OECD average.

Better Policies for Better Lives

Reducing poverty among working families

OECD analysis suggests that the US could help working families to reduce poverty rates by strengthening services and benefits for children in their early years, including legislating for paid parental leave, and building on the successes of child education and care services, such as the Headstart programme.

Families in the US understand the value of a good head start. In the US, total public spending on child welfare and education is USD 160 000 up to the age of 18, above the OECD average of USD 149 000. But the US leaves it late, spending the most money on public compulsory education. This means early investment – including childcare and support for families around the time of birth – could be strengthened.

The US, for example, is the only OECD country without a national paid parental leave policy, although some states do provide leave payments. Available parental leave is short (12 weeks), and only covers some employees (those in companies with 50+ workers). While making changes will involve a cost to employers, there will be benefits not only to child well-being but also the labour market, as evidence suggests that when US mothers take their full leave entitlement, they are more likely to return to work than mothers who do not.

Leave is short for a reason: US family well-being is strongly linked to employment because a significant proportion of public family support is delivered via tax breaks and credits (45% of total compared to 10% on average in the OECD). Nevertheless female employment in the US has been falling for the last decade, albeit from high levels. This fall is happening despite US women having better career prospects compared to most other OECD countries (35% of management jobs occupied by women) and lower career costs associated with child-rearing (where mothers earn over 80% of non-mothers’ earnings over a working life).

Indicators

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Background

Top Ranking

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Work-Life Balance in Detail by Country

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